Home / Evolution & Extinction / The Mass Extinction at the End of the Permian

! A.M.B. Abu Hamad et al. (2012): The record of Triassic charcoal and other evidence for palaeo-wildfires: Signal for atmospheric oxygen levels, taphonomic biases or lack of fuel? In PDF, International Journal of Coal Geology, 96–97: 60–71.
See also here (abstract).

! Albertiana (The Subcommission on Triassic Stratigraphy).
The primary mission of Albertiana is to promote the interdisciplinary collaboration and understanding among members of the Subcommission on Triassic Stratigraphy and the Triassic community at large. Albertiana are posted in a blog-style format and archived (by volume) as fully-formatted pdf issues at year end.
Albertiana past issues are available from here and likewise from Geobiology.cn. Scans of the rare early volumes of Albertiana!
Still available via Internet Archive Wayback Machine.

Andrew Alden, About.com Guide: The Permian-Triassic Extinction.

! T.J. Algeo and J. Shen (2024): Theory and classification of mass extinction causation. Free access, National Science Review, 11: nwad237.
See likewise here.
Note figure 3: Generalized flowchart showing role of carbon-cycle response (yellow) in linking triggers (ultimate causes; green) to environmental responses (proximate causes; red) during major biocrises.
Figure 4: Classification of mass extinctions, based on a combination of ultimate ( y-axis) and proximate ( x-axis) causation.

T.J. Algeo et al. (2015): Global review of the Permian–Triassic mass extinction and subsequent recovery: Part II. Abstract, Earth-Science Reviews, 149.

T.J. Algeo et al. (2015): Global review of the Permian–Triassic mass extinction and subsequent recovery: Part II. Accessible abstracts of some articles. Earth-Science Reviews, 149. Edited by Zhong-Qiang Chen, Thomas Algeo and Dave Bottjer.

! T.J. Algeo et al. (2011): Terrestrial–marine teleconnections in the collapse and rebuilding of Early Triassic marine ecosystems. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 308: 1–11. See also here.
Note fig. 4: Interpretative reconstructions of terrestrial–marine teleconnections during the PTB crisis.

AlphaGalileo Foundation (an independent source of news from science): Did past climate change encourage tree-killing fungi? (August 06, 2011).

! J.M. Anderson et al. (1999): Patterns of Gondwana plant colonisation and diversification. Abstract, Journal of African Earth Sciences, 28: 145-l67. See also here (in PDF).

M.S. Barash (2012): Mass extinction of ocean organisms at the Paleozoic-Mesozoic boundary: Effects and causes. Abstract, Oceanology, 52.

B. Baresel et al. (2017): Timing of global regression and microbial bloom linked with the Permian-Triassic boundary mass extinction: implications for driving mechanisms. Sci. Rep., 7.

A. Baud and A.C. Daley (2023): Across the end-Permian great extinction: From field studies to scientific results. Conference report, in PDF. University of Lausanne, Switzerland, August 29 to September 2, 2023. Albertiana, 48: 11–14.

G. Bechly and R. Stockar (2011): The first Mesozoic record of the extinct apterygote insect genus Dasyleptus (Insecta: Archaeognatha: Monura: Dasyleptidae) from the Triassic of Monte San Giorgio (Switzerland). In PDF, Palaeodiversity, 4: 23–37.

! L. Becker et al. (2000): Fullerenes: An extraterrestrial carbon carrier phase for noble gases. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS). See also here (abstract).

! G. Benedix (2007): Phenomena and causes of the end-Permian biotic crisis. In PDF.

! J.P. Benca et al. (2018): UV-B–induced forest sterility: Implications of ozone shield failure in Earth’s largest extinction. In PDF, Sci. Adv., 4. See also here.
See also there:
"Increased UV from ozone depletion sterilizes trees", by Robert Sanders, Berkeley News.

! M.J. Benton (2018): Hyperthermal-driven mass extinctions: killing models during the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. In PDF, Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A, 376. See also here.
Note Fig. 3: Palaeogeographic map of the Permo-Triassic, showing the single supercontinent Pangaea, modelled climate belts, and the distribution of terrestrial tetrapods.

! M.J. Benton and R.J. Twitchett (2003): How to kill (almost) all life: the end-Permian extinction event. In PDF, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 18.

M. Benton et al. (2002): Permian and Triassic Red Beds and the Penarth Group of Great Britain, General introduction. In PDF, Geological Conservation Review Series, No. 24, Joint Nature Conservation Committee, Peterborough.
See especially PDF page 3: "Mass Extinctions".
See also here.

! Michael Benton, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol: Wipeout. The end-Permian crisis. New Scientist vol 178 issue 2392 - 26 April 2003, page 38. See also:
Reprints by Michael J. Benton (PDF files).

Michael J. Benton (2010): The origins of modern biodiversity on land. In PDF, Transactions of the Royal Society, B.

Phil Berardelli, Science now: The Fungus That Ate the World.
Website outdated, download a version archived by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

A. Bercovici et al. (2015): Terrestrial paleoenvironment characterization across the Permian-Triassic boundary in South China. In PDF, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 98: 225-246. See also here.

! R.A. Berner et al. (2007): Oxygen and evolution. In PDF, Science, 316.

Robert A. Berner (2002): Examination of hypotheses for the Permo-Triassic boundary extinction by carbon cycle modeling. PDF file, PNAS, 99: 4172-4177. See also here.

! B.A. Black et al. (2012): Magnitude and consequences of volatile release from the Siberian Traps. In PDF, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 317-318: 363-373. Now provided by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

P. Blomenkemper et al. (2018): A hidden cradle of plant evolution in Permian tropical lowlands. Abstract, Science, 362: 1414-1416. See also here (researchers from the University of Münster report on their findings), and there (Scinexx article, in German).
"... These fossils, which include the earliest records of conifers, push back the ages of several important seed-plant lineages. Some of these lineages appear to span the mass extinction event at the end of the Permian, which suggests that the communities they supported may have been more stable than expected over this transition ...".

! D.P.G. Bond and S.E. Grasby (2017): On the causes of mass extinctions. Abstract, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, See also here (in PDF).

! D.P.G. Bond and P. Wignall (2014): Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions: An update. PDF file, in: Keller, G., and Kerr, A.C., eds.: Volcanism, Impacts, and Mass Extinctions: Causes and Effects. See also here and there.

A. Boscaini et al. (2022): Late Permian to Late Triassic Large Igneous Provinces: Timing, Eruptive Style and Paleoenvironmental Perturbations. Free access, Frontiers in Earth Science. See also here.
Note figure 1: Simplified sketches of the Siberian Traps, the Wrangellia and the CAMP.
Figure 2: Initial maximum CO₂ budgets obtained from Nb whole-rock concentrations of magmas for the Siberian Traps, the Wrangellia and the CAMP.

! D.J. Bottjer et al. (2008): Understanding mechanisms for the end-Permian mass extinction and the protracted Early Triassic aftermath and recovery. In PDF, GSA Today, 18.

S.A. Bowring et al. (1999): The tempo of mass extinction and recovery: The end-Permian example. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A (PNAS, The National Academy of Sciences), 96: 8827-8828.
See also here.

U. Brand et al. (2012): The end-Permian mass extinction: A rapid volcanic CO₂ and CH₄-climatic catastrophe. In PDF, Chemical Geology, 322-323: 121-144.
The link is to a version archived by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

Helen Briggs, BBC News (2005): Palaeozoic World, Permian Extinction Event.

The Bristol Palaeobiology Research Group , Dept. of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, UK:
! The Permo-Triassic mass extinction and its aftermath.

! The palaeofiles. Articles here have all been prepared by students on the palaeobiology programmes in Bristol:
The end-Permian mass extinction.

Robert Roy Britt (2006): Giant Crater Found: Tied to Worst Mass Extinction Ever. See also here (Science Daily).

N. Brocklehurst et al. (2018): Physical and environmental drivers of Paleozoic tetrapod dispersal across Pangaea. Open access, Nature Communications, 9.

! S.D. Burgess and S.A. Bowring (2015): High-precision geochronology confirms voluminous magmatism before, during, and after Earth’s most severe extinction. Free access, Science Advances, 1. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1500470.
"... New U/Pb dates on Siberian Traps LIP lava flows, sills, and explosively erupted rocks indicate that (i) about two-thirds of the total lava/pyroclastic volume was erupted over ~300 ky, before and concurrent with the end-Permian mass extinction; (ii) eruption of the balance of lavas continued for at least 500 ky after extinction cessation; and (iii) massive emplacement of sills into the shallow crust began concomitant with the mass extinction and continued for at least 500 ky into the early Triassic. ..."

! S.D. Burgess et al. (2014): High-precision timeline for Earth´s most severe extinction. In PDF, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 111. See also here.

Andrew M. Bush, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT: Book review, Science 31 March 2006: Vol. 311. no. 5769, pp. 1868 - 1869: Crime Scene Investigation--Permian. concerning "Extinction - How Life on Earth Nearly Ended 250 Million Years Ago", by Douglas H. Erwin Princeton University Press, 2006; 306 pp.

! D.J. Button et al. (2017): Mass extinctions drove increased global faunal cosmopolitanism on the supercontinent Pangaea. Open access, Nature Communications, 8: 1–8.
"... 891 terrestrial vertebrate species spanning the late Permian through Early Jurassic. This key interval witnessed the Permian–Triassic and Triassic–Jurassic mass extinctions, the onset of fragmentation of the supercontinent Pangaea, and the origins of dinosaurs and many modern vertebrate groups. Our results recover significant increases in global faunal cosmopolitanism following both mass extinctions, driven mainly by new, widespread taxa, leading to homogenous ‘disaster faunas’. Cosmopolitanism subsequently declines in post-recovery communities. ..."

C. Cao et al. (2009): Biogeochemical evidence for euxinic oceans and ecological disturbance presaging the end-Permian mass extinction event. In PDF, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 281: 188-201.
See also here.

CARTAGE (Central Array of Relayed Transaction for the Advance of General Education), Lebanon: CARTAGE is a knowledge database and a school network. Paleobotany. Some articles. Go to: Is there a floral break in the Permian? Now via wayback machine.

B. Cascales-Miñana et al. (2015): A palaeobotanical perspective on the great end-Permian biotic crisis. Abstract. See also here (in PDF).

! B. Cascales-Miñana and C.J. Cleal (2013): The plant fossil record reflects just two great extinction events. Abstract. See also here (in PDF).

B. Cascales-Miñana et al. (2013): What is the best way to measure extinction? A reflection from the palaeobotanical record. Abstract.

! B. Cascales-Miñana and C.J. Cleal (2012): Plant fossil record and survival analyses. In PDF, Lethaia, 45: 71-82. See also here (abstract).

Z.-Q. Chen et al. (2018): Great Paleozoic-Mesozoic Biotic Turnings and Paleontological Education in China: A Tribute to the Achievements of Professor Zunyi Yang. In PDF, Journal of Earth Science, 29: 721–732.

! Zhong-Qiang Chen et al. (2014): State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, Global review of the Permian-Triassic mass extinction and subsequent recovery: Part I. In PDF, Earth-Science Reviews. See also here.

D. Chu et al. (2020): Ecological disturbance in tropical peatlands prior to marine Permian-Triassic mass extinction. Open access, Geology, 48: 288–292.

! D. Chu et al. (2016): Biostratigraphic correlation and mass extinction during the Permian-Triassic transition in terrestrial-marine siliciclastic settings of South China. In PDF, Global and Planetary Change, 146: 67–88.
See also here.

N.M. Chumakov and M.A. Zharkov (2003): Climate during the Permian-Triassic biosphere reorganizations. Article 2. Climate of the Late Permian and Early Triassic: general inferences. PDF file, Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation, 11: 361-375. Translated from Stratigrafiya. Geologicheskaya Korrelyatsiya, 11: 55-70. See also:
N.M. Chumakov and M.A. Zharkov (2002): Climate during Permian-Triassic Biosphere Reorganizations, Article 1: Climate of the Early Permian. See also:
M.A. Zharkov and N.M. Chumakov (2001): (web-site hosted by the Laboratory of Arthropods, Palaeontological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow): Paleogeography and Sedimentation Settings during Permian-Triassic Reorganizations in Biosphere.

! M.O. Clarkson et al. (2016): Dynamic anoxic ferruginous conditions during the end-Permian mass extinction and recovery. Nature Communications, 7.

S. Collins (2015): New Clues to a Mass Extinction: Colby Geologist Robert Gastaldo and Student Researchers unearth Evidence that contradicts prevailing Models about ancient Die-offs. In PDF, Colby Magazine, 104.

! J. Dal Corso et al. (2022): Environmental crises at the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. Free access, Nat. Rev. Earth. Environ., https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-021-00259-4.
"... In this Review, we critically evaluate the geological evidence and discuss the current hypotheses surrounding the kill mechanisms of the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. ..."

! W.J. Davis (2023): Mass extinctions and their relationship with atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration: Implications for Earth's future. Open access, Earth's Future, 11: e2022EF003336.
! Note figure 1: Time series of mass extinctions and their substages over the past 534 million years.
Figure 2: Equal-interval histogram of percent genus loss versus (vs.) time showing 25 previously-identified mass extinction events over the past 534 million years.

V.I. Davydov et al. (2021): Climate and biotic evolution during the Permian-Triassic transition in the temperate Northern Hemisphere, Kuznetsk Basin, Siberia, Russia. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 573. See also here.

V.I. Davydov and E.V. Karasev (2021): The Influence of the Permian-Triassic Magmatism in the Tunguska Basin, Siberia on the Regional Floristic Biota of the Permian-Triassic Transition in the Region. In PDF, Front. Earth Sci. 9:635179. doi: 10.3389/feart.2021.635179

! M.O. Day et al. (2015): When and how did the terrestrial mid-Permian mass extinction occur? Evidence from the tetrapod record of the Karoo Basin, South Africa . In PDF, R. Soc. B, 282. See also here.

Clare Davies et al. (2010): Deposition in the Kuznetsk Basin, Siberia: Insights into the Permian-Triassic transition and the Mesozoic evolution of Central Asia. Abstract, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 295: 307-322.

Senatskommission für Zukunftsaufgaben der Geowissenschaften der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG):
Dynamische Erde – Zukunftsaufgaben der Geowissenschaften. 10.3 – Krisen der Evolution und Dynamik der Biodiversität. In German.
Still available through the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

! W.A. DiMichele et al. (2009): Climate and vegetational regime shifts in the late Paleozoic ice age earth. PDF file, Geobiology, 7: 200-226.
Snapshot provided by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

W.A. DiMichele et al. (2008): The so-called "Paleophytic–Mesophytic" transition in equatorial Pangea. Multiple biomes and vegetational tracking of climate change through geological time. PDF file, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 268: 152-163.
See likewise here (abstract), and there (still available via Internet Archive Wayback Machine).
! "... the evidence for a global “Paleophytic” vs. “Mesophytic” “vegetation” is simply unsubstantiated by the fossil record.
[...] The vegetational changes occurring in the late Paleozoic thus can be understood best when examined as spatial–temporal changes in biome-scale species pools responding to major global climate changes, locally and regionally manifested. ..."

! W.A. DiMichele (1999): EVOLUTIONARY AND PALEOECOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF TERRESTRIAL FLORAL CHANGES IN THE LATE PALEOZOIC TROPICS. Abstract, 1999 GSA Annual Meeting, Denver, Colorado; The Geological Society of America (GSA).
This expired link is now available through the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

dmoz, open directory project:
Science: Earth Sciences: Paleontology: Extinction.
! Permian-Triassic.

Dan Dorritie, Berkeley Echo Lake Camp: Killer in our midst. Go to: Early Triassic Aftermath 1 and Early Triassic Aftermath 2.

Earth System Processes - Global Meeting (June 24-28, 2001) Edinburgh: Session No. T7 Tuesday, June 26, 2001; Global Change in the Late Paleozoic. Abstracts.

A.M.T. Elewa (2008): Late Permian mass extinction (article starts on PDF page 71).
In: A.M.T. Elewa (ed): Mass Extinction (table of contents, Springer).

! Encyclopædia Britannica:
Permian extinction.

! D.H. Erwin (Rubey Colloquium Paper): Impact at the Permo-Triassic Boundary: A Critical Evaluation. PDF file, ASTROBIOLOGY, Volume 3, Number 1, 2003. This expired link is available through the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

! D.H. Erwin et al. (2002): End-Permian mass extinctions: A review. Abstract. See also here (in PDF).

! D.H. Erwin (1996): The mother of mass extinctions. In PDF, Scientific American.

X. Feng et al. (2022): Resilience of infaunal ecosystems during the Early Triassic greenhouse Earth. Open acces, Sci. Adv., 8: eabo0597.
Note fig. 5: Reconstruction of marine ecosystems before and after the P-Tr mass extinction in China.

Z. Feng et al. (2020): From rainforest to herbland: New insights into land plant responses to the end-Permian mass extinction. Free access, Earth-Science Reviews.
Note fig. 8: Tomiostrobus sinensis Feng, whole plant reconstruction.
Note fig. 9: Reconstructions of the late Permian and Early Triassic vegetation in Southwest China.

C.R. Fielding et al. (2022): Environmental change in the late Permian of Queensland, NE Australia: The warmup to the end-Permian Extinction.In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 594.
See also here.

C.R. Fielding et al. (2019): Age and pattern of the southern high-latitude continental end-Permian extinction constrained by multiproxy analysis. Open access, Communications, 10.
"... we use palynology coupled with high-precision CA-ID-TIMS dating of euhedral zircons from continental sequences of the Sydney Basin, Australia, to show that the collapse of the austral Permian Glossopteris flora occurred prior to 252.3?Ma (~370 kyrs before the main marine extinction). Weathering proxies indicate that floristic changes occurred during a brief climate perturbation in a regional alluvial landscape ..."

! C.R. Fielding et al. (2019): Age and pattern of the southern high-latitude continental end-Permian extinction constrained by multiproxy analysis. Open access, Nature Communications.

W.J. Foster et al. (2022): Machine learning identifies ecological selectivity patterns across the end-Permian mass extinction. Free access, Paleobiology, 2022: 1–15. See also here.
Worth to visit: Forscher finden Survival-Faktoren. In German, Der Spiegel, March 03, 2022.

C.R. Fielding et al. (2022): Environmental change in the late Permian of Queensland, NE Australia: The warmup to the end-Permian Extinction. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 594.
See also here.
"... the time interval 257–252 Ma represented by the studied succession does not record a simple monotonic change in palaeoenvironmental conditions, but rather a series of intermittent stepwise changes towards warmer, and more environmentally stressed conditions leading up to the EPE [End-Permian Extinction] in eastern Australia. ..."

W.J. Foster et al. (2022): Bioindicators of severe ocean acidification are absent from the end-Permian mass extinction. Open access, Sci. Rep., 12.

W.J. Foster (2017): Subsequent biotic crises delayed marine recovery following the late Permian mass extinction event in northern Italy. Open access, PLoS ONE 12(3): e0172321.

C.B. Foster and S.A. Afonin (2005): Abnormal pollen grains: an outcome of deteriorating atmospheric conditions around the Permian-Triassic boundary. In PDF,, Journal of the Geological Society, 162(4): 653-659.
See also here.

T. Galfetti et al. (2007): Smithian-Spathian boundary event: Evidence for global climatic change in the wake of the end-Permian biotic crisis. PDF file, Geology, 35: 291-294. See also here (abstract).

! J.M. Galloway and S. Lindström (2023): Impacts of large-scale magmatism on land plant ecosystems. Open access, Elements, 19: 289–295.
! Note figure 1: Summary figure of changes in the diversity of land plants over geological time.
Figure 2: Flow chart showing the myriad of ways large-scale magmatism may impact land plants.
"... Emplacement of large igneous provinces (LIPs) is implicated in almost every mass extinction and smaller biotic crises in Earth’s history, but the effects of these and other large-scale magmatic events on terrestrial ecosystems are poorly understood
[...] We review existing palynological literature to explore the direct and cumulative impacts of large-scale magmatism, such as LIP-forming events, on terrestrial vegetation composition and dynamics over geological time ..."

! J.M. Galloway and S. Lindström (2023): Wildfire in the geological record: Application of Quaternary methods to deep time studies. Open access, Evolving Earth, 1.
! Note figure 1: Summary figure of changes in atmospheric O₂ [...] and important events in Earth’s history, climate state, selected extinction events.

R.A. Gastaldo et al. (2021): A tale of two Tweefonteins: What physical correlation, geochronology, magnetic polarity stratigraphy, and palynology reveal about the end-Permian terrestrial extinction paradigm in South Africa. Open access, GSA Bulletin.

R.A. Gastaldo et al. (2020): The base of the Lystrosaurus Assemblage Zone, Karoo Basin, predates the end-Permian marine extinction. Open access, Nature Communications.

! R. Gastaldo (2019): Ancient plants escaped the end-Permian mass extinction. Free access, Nature, NEWS AND VIEWS.

R.A. Gastaldo et al. (2017): Paleontology of the Blaauwater 67 and 65 Farms, South Africa: testing the Daptocephalus/Lystrosaurus biozone boundary in a stratigraphic framework. In PDF, Palaios, 34: 369–366. See also here (abstract).
"Contrary to the proposal that the Karoo Basin experienced a vegetational die off in the upper Daptocephalus biozone that was responsible for a phased extinction of vertebrates, our collections indicate that glossopterids and sphenophytes continued to colonize landscapes of the Lystrosaurus AZ".

R.A. Gastaldo et al. (2015): Is the vertebrate-defined Permian-Triassic boundary in the Karoo Basin, South Africa, the terrestrial expression of the end-Permian marine event?. In PDF, Geology.

! R.A. Gastaldo and J. Neveling (2014): Comment on: "Anatomy of a mass extinction: Sedimentological and taphonomic evidence for drought-induced die-offs at the Permo–Triassic boundary in the main Karoo Basin, South Africa" by R.M.H. Smith and J. Botha-Brink, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 396:99-118. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.

R.A. Gastaldo et al. (2013): Latest Permian paleosols from Wapadsberg Pass, South Africa: Implications for Changhsingian climate. In PDF, GSA Bulletin.

R.A. Gastaldo and J. Neveling (2012): Reply: The terrestrial Permian-Triassic boundary event is a nonevent. In PDF.

! Robert A. Gastaldo et al. (2005): Taphonomic Trends of Macrofloral Assemblages Across the Permian-Triassic Boundary, Karoo Basin, South Africa. PDF file, Palaios. See also here.

R.A. Gastaldo et al. (2004): TAPHONOMIC TRENDS OF MACROFLORAL ASSEMBLAGES ACROSS THE PERMIAN-TRIASSIC BOUNDARY IN THE KAROO BASIN, SOUTH AFRICA. Abstract, 2004 Denver Annual Meeting (November 7-10, 2004).

! R.A. Gastaldo et al. (1996): Out of the Icehouse into the Greenhouse: A Late Paleozoic Analog for Modern Global Vegetational Change. In PDF, GSA Today 10: 1–7.
Note figure 1: Reconstruction of middle late Carboniferous tropical coal swamp.
Figure 2: Relation between global glaciation and vegetative change during the late Paleozoic in different tropical environments and the north and south temperate belts.
"... Patterns in the late Paleozoic provide us with one certainty: global warming presents plants with conditions that are markedly different from those found during periods of icehouse climate. The waxing and waning of glaciers are, in and of themselves, a climate-mode to which vegetations become attuned ..."

The Geological Society of London, Geology News: Buckyballs to extinction, and Spaceballs! (April 13, 2000), and Just Bucky? How many coincidental double whammies can life (and we) take? (March 8, 2001). The extraterrestrial gases were found trapped inside buckyballs in the thin layer of clay that formed from the fallout of an asteroid impact.

A.V. Goman'kov (2005): Floral Changes across the Permian-Triassic Boundary. Abstract.

Anna Goodwin, Jon Wyles and Alex Morley, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol: The palaeofiles, The end-Permian mass extinction. Go to: What life was present, Vascular plants.
These expired links are now available through the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

E. Gulbranson et al. (2022): Paleoclimate-induced stress on polar forested ecosystems prior to the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. In PDF, Scientific Reports.
See also here.

Anna Goodwin, Jon Wyles and Alex Morley, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol: The palaeofiles, The end-Permian mass extinction. Go to: What life was present, Vascular plants.

N. Ghosh et al. (2015): Catastrophic environmental transition at the Permian-Triassic Neo-Tethyan margin of Gondwanaland: Geochemical, isotopic and sedimentological evidence in the Spiti Valley, India. In PDF, Gondwana Research.

! I.J. Glasspool and A.C. Scott 2010): Phanerozoic concentrations of atmospheric oxygen reconstructed from sedimentary charcoal. In PDF, Nature Geoscience, 3: 627-630.
See also here.
Additional information in: ScienceDaily and phys.org.
! "... We estimate that pO₂ was continuously above 26% during the Carboniferous and Permian periods, and that it declined abruptly around the time of the Permian–Triassic mass extinction. During the Triassic and Jurassic periods, pO₂ fluctuated cyclically, with amplitudes up to 10% and a frequency of 20–30 million years. Atmospheric oxygen concentrations have declined steadily from the middle of the Cretaceous period to present-day values of about 21%. ..."

S.E. Grasby et al. (2020): Toxic mercury pulses into late Permian terrestrial and marine environments. In PDF, Geology.

S.E. Grasby et al. (2015): Progressive environmental deterioration in northwestern Pangea leading to the latest Permian extinction. In PDF, GSA Bulletin, 127: 1331-1347.

S.E. Grasby et al. (2011): Catastrophic dispersion of coal fly ash into oceans during the latest Permian extinction. Abstract, Nature Geoscience, 4: 104-107. See also here (in PDF).

J.F. Harrison et al. (2010): Atmospheric oxygen level and the evolution of insect body size. In PDF, Proc. R. Soc., B, 277: 1937-1946.

! P.A. Hochuli (2016): Interpretation of "fungal spikes" in Permian-Triassic Boundary sections. Abstract, Global and Planetary Change, 144:48-50. See also here (in PDF).

! P.A. Hochuli et al. (2016): Severest crisis overlooked - Worst disruption of terrestrial environments postdates the Permian-Triassic mass extinction. Scientific Reports.

! P.A. Hochuli (2016): Interpretation of "fungal spikes" in Permian-Triassic boundary sections. Abstract, Global and Planetary Change.

P.A. Hochuli et al. (2010): Multiple climatic changes around the Permian-Triassic boundary event revealed by an expanded palynological record from mid-Norway. In PDF, GSA Bulletin, 122: 884-896.
See also here.
"... In contrast to the common claim that marine and terrestrial biota both suffered a mass extinction related to the Permian- Triassic boundary event, the studied material from the Norwegian midlatitudinal sites shows no evidence for destruction of plant ecosystems. ..."

! Peter A. Hochuli et al. (2010): Rapid demise and recovery of plant ecosystems across the end-Permian extinction event. PDF file, Global and Planetary Change.
Snapshot provided by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

Christa-Ch. Hofmann, Institute of Palaeontology, University of Vienna: Pollen and spores tell nearly everything...- and often nothing. Abstract, The International Plant Taphonomy Meeting 2002, Bonn, Goldfuss Museum, Institute of Paleontology, Germany. Snapshot taken by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

Hillel J. Hoffmann, National Geographic Magazine: The Permian Extinction. See also the National Geographic web version.

B. Hönisch et al. (2012): The Geological Record of Ocean Acidification. In PDF, Science, 135.
This expired link is now available through the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

! Yin Hongfu et al. (2001): The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Permian-Triassic Boundary. In PDF.

Hooper Virtual Natural History Museum (named for now retired Dr. Ken Hooper, a Carleton University micropaleontologist) Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada). The principle objective of this museum is to provide a state-of-the-art summary of items of geological interest, emphasizing areas currently being studied by students and research faculty.
For some special topics you may navigate from here or from there (The archives).
See especially:
! The End-Permian Mass Extinction.
! Extinctions: Cycles of Life and Death Through Time.
! Mass Extinctions Of The Phanerozoic Menu.
! Evolution & Extinction.

! F. Hua et al. (2024): The impact of frequent wildfires during the Permian–Triassic transition: Floral change and terrestrial crisis in southwestern China. Free access, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.
Note figure 1a: Palaeogeographic configuration and the position of the South China Plate.
Figure 7: Schematic model illustrating possible relationships between the wildfires and floral changes during the P–T transition in southwestern China.

F. Hua et al. (2023): An astronomical timescale for the Permian-Triassic mass extinction reveals a two-step, million-year-long terrestrial crisis in South China. Free access, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 605.
"... Calibrating the collapse of terrestrial ecosystems indicates that although the equatorial terrestrial PTME [Permian-Triassic Mass Extinction] initiated before the marine crisis, it was a protracted process [...] This has a bearing on extinction scenarios in which the terrestrial PTME is a causal factor in marine losses via enhanced nutrient runoff, because the final devastation on land post-dates the much more abrupt marine PTME. ..."

Y. Huang et al. (2023): The stability and collapse of marine ecosystems during the Permian-Triassic mass extinction. In PDF, Current Biology, 33. See also here.
Note figure 3: Reconstructions of marine ecosystems in trophic pyramid style demonstrating collapse processes during the P-Tr transition in South China.
Also worth checking out:
Verlorene Artenvielfalt löschte Leben endgültig aus. In German, by K. Schlott, Spektrum.de, 2023.

Raymond B. Huey and Peter D. Ward: Hypoxia, Global Warming, and Terrestrial Late Permian Extinctions. Science, Vol 308, Issue 5720, 398-401; 2005.

! P.M. Hull and S.A.F. Darroch (2013): Mass extinctions and the structure and function of ecosystems. PDF file, in: A.M. Bush, S.B. Pruss, and J.L. Payne (eds.): Ecosystem Paleobiology and Geobiology, The Paleontological Society Short Course, October 26, 2013. The Paleontological Society Papers, 19. See also here.

P.M. Hull et al. (2015): Rarity in mass extinctions and the future of ecosystems. In PDF, Nature, 528: 345-351.

International Commission on Stratigraphy.

G. Iacono-Marziano et al. (2012): Gas emissions due to magma-sediment interactions during flood magmatism at the Siberian Traps: Gas dispersion and environmental consequences. In PDF, Earth and Planetary Science Letters.

! Y. Isozaki (2009): Integrated "plume winter" scenario for the double-phased extinction during the Paleozoic-Mesozoic transition: The G-LB and P-TB events from a Panthalassan perspective. PDF file, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 36: 459-480.
Snapshot provided by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.
See also here.
! Note figure 1: The Phanerozoic biodiversity change punctuated by major mass extinction events.
Figure 9: Schematic diagrams of the integrated "plume winter" scenario.

Y. Isozaki (2009): Illawarra Reversal: The fingerprint of a superplume that triggered Pangean breakup and the end-Guadalupian (Permian) mass extinction. In PDF, Gondwana Research, 15: 421-432.

! Y. Isozaki (1997): Permo-Triassic boundary superanoxia and stratified superocean: records from lost deep sea. In PDF.

D. Jablonski and S.M. Edie (2023): Perfect storms shape biodiversity in time and space. Free access, Evolutionary Journal of the Linnean Society, 2.
"... Many of the most dramatic patterns in biological diversity are created by “Perfect Storms” —rare combinations of mutually reinforcing factors that push origination, extinction, or diversity accommodation to extremes. These patterns include the strongest diversification events [...] This approach necessarily weighs contributing factors, identifying their often non-linear and time-dependent interactions ..."

D. Jablonski (2005): Mass extinctions and macroevolution. In PDF, Paleobiology, 31: 192-210.

Yu Jianxin (2008): Floras and the evolutionary dynamics across the Permian-Triassic boundary nearby the border of Guizhou and Yunnan, South China. Abstract (PDF file).

! Y.G. Jin et al. (2000): Pattern of Marine Mass Extinction Near the Permian-Triassic Boundary in South China. In PDF, Science, 289.

M.M. Joachimski et al. (2022): Five million years of high atmospheric CO₂ in the aftermath of the Permian-Triassic mass extinction. Free access, Geology, 6: 650–654.

! M.M. Joachimski et al. (2012): Climate warming in the latest Permian and the Permian-Triassic mass extinction. Abstract, Geology, 40: 195-198. See also here (in PDF).

C. Jouault et al. (2022): Multiple drivers and lineage-specific insect extinctions during the Permo–Triassic. Open access, Nature Communications, 13.

Richard Kaczor, Emporia State University: How Plate Tectonics Affected the Permian Extinction of Organic Life. See also here.

K. Kaiho et al. (2016): Effects of soil erosion and anoxic–euxinic ocean in the Permian–Triassic marine crisis. In PDF, Heliyon, 2.

C.F. Kammerer et al. (2023): Rapid turnover of top predators in African terrestrial faunas around the Permian-Triassic mass extinction. Abstract, Current Biolgy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.007. See also:
Fossils of a saber-toothed top predator reveal a scramble for dominance leading up to 'the Great Dying' (In PDF, Field Museum, May 22, 2023), or:
Schneller Herrscher-Wechsel in der Todes-Ära (in German, by Martin Vieweg, wissenschaft.de, May 22, 2023).

! Sandra L. Kamo et al. (2003): Rapid eruption of Siberian flood-volcanic rocks and evidence for coincidence with the Permian-Triassic boundary and mass extinction at 251 Ma. In PDF, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 214: 75-91.

! K.-P. Kelber, (2003): Sterben und Neubeginn im Spiegel der Paläofloren. PDF file (17 MB!), in German. Plant evolution, the fossil record of plants and the aftermath of mass extinction events. pp. 38-59, 212-215; In: Hansch, W. (ed.): Katastrophen in der Erdgeschichte - Wendezeiten des Lebens.- museo 19, Heilbronn.
Please take notice of figure 9 (PDF page 10): A reconstruction of Pleuromeia sternbergii and the in situ occurrence of casts of stems of this species in a red sandstone of the early Triassic Period, combined with a landscape sketch.

G. Keller and A.C. Kerr (2014): Foreword. From Keller, G., and Kerr, A.C., eds.: Volcanism, Impacts, and Mass Extinctions: Causes and Effects. Geological Society of America Special Paper 505.

Hans Kerp: Permian floras: where does it begin, where does it end? Abstract, Workshop on Permian - Triassic Paleobotany and Palynology, June 16-18, 2005; Natural Science Museum of South Tyrol, Bolzano, Italy.
This expired link is now available through the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

Tim Kerr, Simon Morten, Matt Robinson Sally Stephens, University of Bristol: The Late Triassic Website. This site is intended to provide a brief background to Mass Extinction theory, the Triassic, and specifically to the Triassic Mass Extinction. Go to:
! Ecology of the Triassic.
Provided by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

J.T. Kiehl and C.A. Shields (2005): Climate simulation of the latest Permian: Implications for mass extinction. In PDF, Geology, 33: 757-760.

D. Klärner (2016), Frankfurter Allgemeine (FAZ): Die schicksalhaften Wälder. In German.
About P.A. Hochuli et al. (2016): Severest crisis overlooked ...

Anne Kleinhenz, University of Dayton: Permian-Triassic Extinction. "The Mother of all Extinctions". Powerpoint presentation.

A.H. Knoll and M.J. Follows (2016): A bottom-up perspective on ecosystem change in Mesozoic oceans. In PDF, Proc. R. Soc., B, 283: 20161755. See also here.

A.H. Knoll (2012): Systems Paleobiology. In PDF. See also
here (vimeo.com), or
there (YouTube).

! A.H. Knoll et al. (2007): Paleophysiology and end-Permian mass extinction. PDF file, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 256: 295-313.

A.H. Knoll et al. (1996): Comparative Earth history and Late Permian mass extinction. In PDF, Science, 273.

H.W. Kozur and R.E. Weems (2011): Detailed correlation and age of continental late Changhsingian and earliest Triassic beds: Implications for the role of the Siberian Trap in the Permian-Triassic biotic crisis? Abstract.

! H.W. Kozur, Budapest, Hungary: Problems for Evaluation of the Scenario of the Permian-Triassic Boundary Biotic Crisis and of Its Causes. Abstract, Geologia Croatica, 51/2, 135-162, Zagreb, 1998.

V.A. Krassilov and E.V. Karasev (2009): Paleofloristic evidence of climate change near and beyond the Permian-Triassic boundary. PDF file, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 284: 326-336.

V. Krassilov and A. Shuklina (2007): Terrestrial biotic crises: paleobotanical record and interpretation. In PDF.

E.S. Krull et al.: d¹³C_org chemostratigraphy of the Permian-Triassic boundary in the Maitai Group, New Zealand: evidence for high-latitudinal methane release. PDF file, New Zealand Journal of Geology & Geophysics, 2000, Vol. 43: 21-32.

G. Li et al. (2021): Different triggers for the two pulses of mass extinction across the Permian and Triassic boundary. Open access, Scientific Reports, 11.

S. Lidgard et al. (2009): The search for evidence of mass extinction. In PDF, Natural history, 118: 26-32.
The link is to a version archived by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

Xulong Lai et al. (2008): Palaeoenvironmental change during the end-Guadalupian (Permian) mass extinction in Sichuan, China. In PDF.

S. Lindström and S. McLoughlin (2007): Synchronous palynofloristic extinction and recovery after the end-Permian event in the Prince Charles Mountains, Antarctica: Implications for palynofloristic turnover across Gondwana. Abstract, Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 145: 89-122. See also here.

F. Liu et al. (2023): Dying in the Sun: Direct evidence for elevated UV-B radiation at the end-Permian mass extinction. Free access, Science Advances, 9. See also:
UV-B-Strahlung trug zu Massenexitus bei (by A. Doerfel, Spektrum.de, in German).
A.W.R. Seddon and B. Zimmermann (2023): Comment on “Dying in the Sun: Direct evidence for elevated UV-B radiation at the end-Permian mass extinction”. Free access, Science Advances, 9.
P.E. Jardine et al. (2023): Response to Comment on “Dying in the Sun: Direct evidence for elevated UV-B radiation at the end-Permian mass extinction”. Free access, Science Advances, 9.

! C.V. Looy et al. (2001): Life in the end-Permian dead zone. PNAS, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98: 7879-7883.

C.V. Looy et al. (1999): ¹Laboratory of Palaeobotany and Palynology, Utrecht University; ²Paleobotany Laboratory, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville: The delayed resurgence of equatorial forests after the Permian-Triassic ecologic crisis. PNAS, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 96: 13857-13862.

J. Lu et al. (2022): Diachronous end-Permian terrestrial ecosystem collapse with its origin in wildfires. Open sccess, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 594.

S. Lucas and A. Hunt (2023): There was no Mesozoic marine revolution. In PDF, Proceedings, 87.
See also here.

S.G. Lucas (2021): Nonmarine Mass Extinctions. Paleontological Research 25: 329-344. See also here.

N. MacLeod (2014): The geological extinction record: History, data, biases, and testing. Abstract, from: Keller, G., and Kerr, A.C., eds.: Volcanism, Impacts, and Mass Extinctions: Causes and Effects. Geological Society of America Special Paper 505.

C. Mays et al. (2022): End-Permian burnout: The role of Permian–Triassic wildfires in extinction, carbon cycling, and environmental change in eastern Gondwana. In PDF, Palaios, 37: 292–317.
See also here.
! Note figure 14: Artist’s reconstruction of the humid temperate but fire-adapted glossopterid biome during the end-Permian extinction interval (c. 252.1 Ma). Note the vegetative regeneration along the scorched trunks of the canopy-forming Glossopteris.
"... we conclude that elevated wildfire frequency was a short-lived phenomenon; recurrent wildfire events were unlikely to be the direct cause of the subsequent long-term absence of peat-forming wetland vegetation, and the associated ‘coal gap’ of the Early Triassic. ..."

! C. Mays et al. (2020): Permian–Triassic non-marine algae of Gondwana—Distributions, natural affinities and ecological implications. Free access, Earth-Science Reviews, 212.

! C. Mays et al. (2019): Refined Permian–Triassic floristic timeline reveals early collapse and delayed recovery of south polar terrestrial ecosystems. In PDF, GSA Bulletin. See also here.
Note figure 11: Timeline of Permian–Triassic floral and palynological bioevents, geochemical and sedimentological features, and stages in terrestrial ecosystem evolution, recorded from eastern Australian basins.

! J.C. McElwain (2018): Paleobotany and global change: Important lessons for species to biomes from vegetation responses to past global change, In PDF, Annual review of plant biology, 69: 761–787. See also here

! J.C. McElwain and S.W. Punyasena (2007): Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record. PDF file, Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 22: 548-557. See also here (abstract).

Jennifer C. McElwain, UCD Earth Systems Institute, Dublin: Climate change and mass extinction: What can we learn from 200 million year old plants? PDF file.
Provided by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

G.R. McGhee et al. (2013): A new ecological-severity ranking of major Phanerozoic biodiversity crises. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 370: 260-270.

! G.R. McGhee et al. (2004): Ecological ranking of Phanerozoic biodiversity crises: ecological and taxonomic severities are decoupled. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 211: 289-297.

T. McKie and P.M. Shannon (2011): Comment on "The Permian-Triassic transition and the onset of Mesozoic sedimentation at the northwestern peri Tethyan domain scale: Palaeogeographic maps and geodynamic implications" by S. Bourquin, A. Bercovici, J. López-Gómez, J. B. Diez, J. Broutin, A. Ronchi, M. Durand, A. Arché, B. Linol and F. Amour. [Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 299 (2011) 265–280]. Abstract.

S. McLoughlin (2017): Antarctica’s Glossopteris forests. In PDF, In: 52 More Things You Should Know About Palaeontology, eds. A. Cullum, A.W. Martinius. Nova Scotia: Agile Libre, p. 22-23. See also here.

I. Metcalfe et al. (2015): High-precision U-Pb CA-TIMS calibration of Middle Permian to Lower Triassic sequences, mass extinction and extreme climate-change in eastern Australian Gondwana. Abstract, Gondwana Research, 28: 61-81. See also here (in PDF).
"... There appears to be no evidence for terrestrial or marine extinctions in southern hemisphere Gondwana related to the Emeishan LIP or low-latitude marine extinctions in the northern hemisphere. Proposed causative mechanisms (dramatic sea-level fall, volcanism, cooling) for the Capitanian extinctions appear to have only affected northern hemisphere low-latitude warm-climate biota. ..."

! I. Metcalfe and Y. Isozaki (2009): Current perspectives on the Permian-Triassic boundary and end-Permian mass extinction: Preface. In PDF, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 36: 407-412.

Per Michaelsen (2002): Mass extinction of peat-forming plants and the effect on fluvial styles across the Permian-Triassic boundary, northern Bowen Basin, Australia. PDF file, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 179: 173-188.
See likewise here. Models of fluvial styles in fig. 7 (on PDF page 10).

S. Miller (2014): The public impact of impacts: How the media play in the mass extinction debates. PDF file, in: Keller, G., and Kerr, A.C., eds.: Volcanism, Impacts, and Mass Extinctions: Causes and Effects. Geological Society of America Special Paper 505.

George Monbiot, Dissident Voice (an internet newsletter): Shadow of Extinction - Only Six Degrees Separate Our World from the Cataclysmic End of an Ancient Era.
" ... The goal of Dissident Voice is to provide hard hitting, thought provoking and even entertaining news and commentaries on politics and culture that can serve as ammunition in struggles for peace and social justice ..." !

M. Montagna et al. (2019): Recalibration of the insect evolutionary time scale using Monte San Giorgio fossils suggests survival of key lineages through the End-Permian Extinction. Abstract, Proc. R. Soc. B, 286.

! R. Mundil et al. (2001): Timing of the Permian-Triassic biotic crisis: implications from new zircon U/Pb age data (and their limitations). In PDF, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 187: 131-145.

M.P. Nelsen et al. (2016): Delayed fungal evolution did not cause the Paleozoic peak in coal production. In PDF, PNAS, 113. See also here (abstract).

Stephen A. Nelson, Department of Geology, Tulane University. New Orleans, LA: Natural Disasters, Meteorites, Impacts, and Mass Extinction.

! J. Neveling et al. (2016): A Review of Stratigraphic, Geochemical, and Paleontologic Data of the Terrestrial End-Permian Record in the Karoo Basin, South Africa. In PDF. In: B. Linol and M.J. de Wit (eds.), Origin and Evolution of the Cape Mountains and Karoo Basin, Regional Geology Reviews.

A.J. Newell et al. (2010): Disruption of playa-lacustrine depositional systems at the Permo-Triassic boundary: evidence from Vyazniki and Gorokhovets on the Russian Platform. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 167: 695-716.

! K.J. Niklas (2015): Measuring the tempo of plant death and birth. Open access, New Phytologist.

H. Nowak et al. (2019): No mass extinction for land plants at the Permian–Triassic transition. In PDF, Nature Communications.
"... In the current state, there is no convincing evidence for a global mass extinction among land plants at the end of the Permian. Considering previous studies, it appears that none of the major mass extinctions in the animal fossil record was mirrored by a mass extinction in plants ... . The fossil record of land plants is marked by almost uninterrupted periods of diversification or relatively stable diversity. ..."
See also here (Südtirolnews, in German) and there (salto bz, in German).

! D.E. Ogden and N.H. Sleep (2012): Explosive eruption of coal and basalt and the end-Permian mass extinction. In PDF, PNAS, 109: 59-62. See also here.

! Oxford Bibliographies.
Oxford Bibliographies offers exclusive, authoritative research guides. Combining the best features of an annotated bibliography and a high-level encyclopedia, this cutting-edge resource directs researchers to the best available scholarship across a wide variety of subjects. Go to:
Fossils (by Kevin Boyce).
Paleontology (by René Bobe).
Paleoecology (by Alistair Seddon).

Stephen B. Parsons, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA: Historical Geology, Laboratory Solution Sets. Go to:
Life of the Late Paleozoic Era. Powerpoint presentation.

! J.L. Payne and M.E. Clapham (2012): End-Permian Mass Extinction in the Oceans: An Ancient Analog for the Twenty-First Century? In PDF, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 40: 89-111. See also here (New York Times feature).

! J.L. Payne et al. (2004): Large Perturbations of the Carbon Cycle During Recovery from the End-Permian Extinction. In PDF, Science, 305, Issue 5683: 506-509. See also here (abstract).

PBS, Alexandria, Virginia (PBS is a private, non-profit media enterprise owned and operated by the US 349 public television stations): Evolution. This online course is intended to deepen the understanding of evolution with extensive content-rich materials, interactive exercises, primary source readings and in depth exploration of scientific concepts. Go to: Permian-Triassic Extinction. In this video segment geologist Peter Ward shows rock layers laid down during the Permian and Triassic periods.

Y. Pei et al. (2023): Ecosystem changes through the Permian–Triassic and Triassic–Jurassic critical intervals: Evidence from sedimentology, palaeontology and geochemistry: Free access, Sedimentology.
"... The Permian–Triassic and Triassic–Jurassic critical intervals are among the most significant ecological upheavals in the Phanerozoic.
[...] the Permian–Triassic record is dominated by dasyclad green algae and fusulinid foraminifera, while the Triassic–Jurassic record is typified by corals and coralline sponges.
[...] For both critical intervals, it is commonly assumed that the formation of voluminous volcanic provinces (Siberian Traps and Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, respectively), as well as associated processes (for example, burning of organic-rich sediments such as coal), resulted in ecological devastation. ..."

Shanan E. Peters, University of Wisconsin-Madison: Sepkoski's Online Genus Database. The purpose of this database is to allow users to easily search and summarize Sepkoski's global genus compendium on the basis of Evolutionary Fauna, Phylum, or Class.

H.W. Pfefferkorn (2004): The complexity of mass extinction. Commentary, PNAS, 101: 12779-12780.
Take notice of figure 2: A reconstruction of the herbaceous lycopsid Pleuromeia and the in situ occurrence of casts of stems of this species in a red sandstone of the early Triassic Period, combined with a landscape sketch with this plant and a fern species.

H.W. Pfefferkorn, Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA: Commentary: Recuperation from Mass Extinctions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 96.

A.G. Ponomarenko (2006): Changes in terrestrial biota before the Permian-Triassic ecological crisis. Abstract.

Poreda R.J. and Becker L.: Fullerenes and Interplanetary Dust at the Permian-Triassic Boundary. Astrobiology, 1 January 2003, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 75-90(16).

R. Prevec et al. (2009): Portrait of a Gondwanan ecosystem: A new late Permian fossil locality from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Abstract, Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 156: 454-493. See also here (PDF file).

G. Racki (2020): Volcanism as a prime cause of mass extinctions: Retrospectives and perspectives. PDF file, in Adatte, T., Bond, D.P.G., and Keller, G., (eds.): Mass Extinctions, Volcanism, and Impacts: New Developments: Geological Society of America Special Paper 544, p. 1–34. Special Paper, 544. See likewise here.
Note figure 9: Major geologic processes contributing to widespread oceanic anoxia, in a broad conceptual setting of the global system.
Figure 10: Volcanic super-greenhouse (“summer”) scenario.
"... In recent models of earth-system crises, the correlation between the major Phanerozoic mass extinctions and large igneous provinces has been well established
[...] the killing effectiveness of volcanic cataclysm should be viewed not only by the large igneous province size but also by their host geology, magma plumbing system, and eruption dynamics ..."

! G. Racki (2012): The Alvarez impact theory of mass extinction; limits to its applicability and the "great expectations syndrome". In PDF, Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. See also here (abstract).

G. Racki and P.B. Wignall (2005) Late Permian double-phased mass extinction and volcanism: an oceanographic perspective. In PDF.

! M.R. Rampino and Y. Eshet (2017): The fungal and acritarch events as time markers for the latest Permian mass extinction: An update. In PDF, Geoscience Frontiers. Open Access funded by China University of Geosciences (Beijing).
"The fungal event, evidenced by a thin zone with >95% fungal cells (Reduviasporonites) and woody debris, found in terrestrial and marine sediments, and the acritarch event, marked by the sudden flood of unusual phytoplankton in the marine realm. These two events represent the global temporary explosive spread of stress-tolerant and opportunistic organisms on land and in the sea just after the latest Permian disaster".

Michael R. Rampino (2010): Mass extinctions of life and catastrophic flood basalt volcanism. PDF file, PNAS, 107: 6555-6556. See also here.

! P.M. Rees (2002): Land-plant diversity and the end-Permian mass extinction. In PDF, Geology, 30: 827-830. See also here (abstract).

! Allister Rees, Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson: Permian Phytogeography and Climate Inference. Downloadable PowerPoint Presentation, Nonmarine Permian Symposium.
Still available via Internet Archive Wayback Machine.

P.M. Rees et al. (2002): Permian Phytogeographic Patterns and Climate Data/Model Comparisons. PDF file, Journal of Geology, 110, 1–31.
See also here.

Rees, P.M., McGowan, Alistair J., & Ziegler, Alfred M.: PATTERNS OF GLOBAL PLANT DIVERSITY, GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE IN THE PERMIAN AND TRIASSIC.- Abstract, Summit 2000, 2000 GSA Annual Meeting, Reno, Nevada; The Geological Society of America (GSA).
Snapshot taken by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

! Gregory J. Retallack et al. (2011): Multiple Early Triassic greenhouse crises impeded recovery from Late Permian mass extinction. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. See also here (abstract).

! Gregory J. Retallack et al. (2011): Multiple Early Triassic greenhouse crises impeded recovery from Late Permian mass extinction. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. See also here (abstract).

G.J. Retallack and A.H. Jahren (2008): Methane release from igneous intrusion of coal during Late Permian extinction events. PDF file, Journal of Geology, 116: 1-20.
Now recovered from the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

! G.J. Retallack et al. (2006): Middle-Late Permian mass extinction on land. PDF file, GSA Bulletin, 118: 1398-1411.
See also here.

G.J. Retallack (2005): Permian greenhouse crises. PDF file, in: Lucas, S.G. and Zeigler, K.E. (eds.): The Nonmarine Permian, New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin No. 30.

G.J. Retallack et al. (2002): PALEOSOL AND VERTEBRATE EXTINCTION ACROSS THE PERMIAN-TRIASSIC BOUNDARY IN THE KAROO BASIN, SOUTH AFRICA. Abstract, Geological Society of America: GSA Annual Meeting, October 27-30, 2002, Denver, CO.
Available through the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

G.J. Retallack (1999): Postapocalyptic greenhouse paleoclimate revealed by earliest Triassic paleosols. PDF file, Geological Society of America Bulletin. See also here (abstract).

G.J. Retallack and E.S. Krull (1999): Landscape ecological shift at the Permian-Triassic boundary in Antarctica. In PDF, Australian Journal of Earth Sciences.
Now provided by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

Gregory J. Retallack et al. (1996): Global coal gap between Permian-Triassic extinction and Middle Triassic recovery of peat-forming plants. Abstract, Geological Society of America Bulletin, 108: 195-207.

! G.J. Retallack et al. (1996): Global coal gap between Permian-Triassic extinction and Middle Triassic recovery of peat-forming plants. In PDF, Abstract, Geological Society of America, Bulletin, 108: 195–207.
See also here and there.
"... It is a curious fact that no coal seam of Early Triassic has yet been discovered, and those of Middle Triassic age are rare and thin. ..."
"... we favor explanations involving extinction of peat-forming plants at the Permian-Triassic boundary, followed by a hiatus of some 10 m.y. until newly evolved peat-forming plants developed tolerance to the acidic dysaerobic conditions of wetlands. ..."

! R.A. Rohde and R.A. Muller (2005): Cycles in Fossil Diversity. In PDF, Nature, 434, 208-210. See also here and there (abstract).

! Mark Ridley, The Times Literary Supplement, No. 5238, August 22, 2003, page 28: Clues to catastrophe. Book review.

Peter D. Roopnarine et al. (2007): Trophic network models explain instability of Early Triassic terrestrial communities. PDF file, Proc. R. Soc. B, 274: 2077-2086. See also here.

Ronny Rößler (John Wiley & Sons, Inc.): Das Perm - Farnwälder, Glutwolken und Salzwüsten. In German. Full article available here (PDF file).

D.H. Rothman et al. (2014): Methanogenic burst in the end-Permian carbon cycle. In PDF, PNAS, 111.

! D.A. Ruban (2023): Tsunamis Struck Coasts of Triassic Oceans and Seas: Brief Summary of the Literary Evidence. Free access, Water, 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15081590.
Note figure 3: Global distribution and certainty of evidence of palaeotsunamis from the three time slices of the Triassic Period.
Worth checking out: !Table 1. The literary evidence for judgments of Triassic tsunamis.
"The present work aims at summarizing the published information on Triassic tsunamis to document their spatiotemporal distribution and the related knowledge gaps and biases ..."

Sarda Sahney and Michael J Benton (2008): Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time. Proc. R. Soc. B, 275: 759-765. See also here (PDF file).

! A. Saunders and M. Reichow (2009): The Siberian Traps and the End-Permian mass extinction: a critical review. In PDF, Chinese Science Bulletin, 54: 20-37. See also here.

S.R. Schachat and C.C. Labandeira (2021): Are Insects Heading Toward Their First Mass Extinction? Distinguishing Turnover From Crises in Their Fossil Record. In PDF, Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 114: 99–118. See also here.

E. Schneebeli-Hermann et al. (2014): Vegetation history across the Permian–Triassic boundary in Pakistan (Amb section, Salt Range). Gondwana research, 27: 911-924.
See also here, and there (in PDF).

E. Schneebeli-Hermann et al. (2013): Evidence for atmospheric carbon injection during the end-Permian extinction. Abstract, Geology, 41: 579-582. See also here (in PDF).

! E. Schneebeli-Hermann (2012): Extinguishing a Permian World. In PDF, Geology, 40: 287-288. See also here.

E. Schneebeli-Hermann et al. (2011): Terrestrial ecosystems during and following the end-Permian mass extinction - or from spore spike to spore spike. In PDF, Swiss Geoscience Meeting 2011.
The link is to a version archived by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

! M. Schobben et al. (2019): Interpreting the carbon isotope record of mass extinctions. Free access, Elements, 15: 331–337.
Note figure 2: Temporal distribution of large igneous provinces (LIPs) and mass extinctions since the Ordovician.
Figure 3: The biogeochemical carbon cycle.
"... carbon isotopes are not a panacea for understanding all aspects of mass extinctions. Most, perhaps all, extinction crises coincide with large-scale volcanism and disturbance to the long-term carbon cycle ..."

M.A.N. Schobben (2011): Marine and terrestrial proxy records of environmental changes across the Triassic/Jurassic transition: A combined geochemical and palynological approach. In PDF, Master thesis, University Utrecht.
See also here.

Scinexx: Vulkangase schuld an größtem Massenaussterben (in German).

Steve Self, Hawaii Center for Volcanology, University of Hawaii, and Mike Rampino, Earth and Environmental Science Program, New York University (The Geological Society of London): FLOOD BASALTS, MANTLE PLUMES and MASS EXTINCTIONS.

M.A. Sephton et al. (2015): Terrestrial acidification during the end-Permian biosphere crisis? IN PDF, Geology, 43: 159-162. See also here, and there.

M.A. Sephton et al. (2011): Chemical constitution of a Permian-Triassic disaster species. Abstract, Geology, 37: 875-878.

! M.A. Sephton et al. (2005): Catastrophic soil erosion during the end-Permian biotic crisis. In PDF.

Megan Sever, Geotimes, Highlights 2005; Paleontology: The "Great Dying" debate.

D.E. Shcherbakov (2008): On Permian and Triassic Insect Faunas in Relation to Biogeography and the Permian–Triassic Crisis. In PDF, Paleontological Journal, 42: 15-31.
The link is to a version archived by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

D.E. Shcherbakov (2008): Insect recovery after the Permian/Triassic crisis. In PDF, Alavesia, 2: 125-131.

D.E. Shcherbakov (2000): Permian Faunas of Homoptera (Hemiptera) in Relation to Phytogeography and the Permo-Triassic Crisis. In PDF, Paleontological Journal, Vol. 34, Suppl. 3, 2000, pp. S251–S267.

J. Shen et al. (2019): Evidence for a prolonged Permian–Triassic extinction interval from global marine mercury records. Open access, Nature Communications, 10.

! Shu-zhong Shen et al. (2011): Calibrating the End-Permian Mass Extinction. In PDF, Science, 334.
Snapshot provided by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.
See also here (abstract).

Shu Zhong Shen et al. (2006): End-Permian mass extinction pattern in the northern peri-Gondwanan region. In PDF, Palaeoworld, 15: 3-30.

Wenjie Shen et al. (2011): Evidence for wildfire in the Meishan section and implications for Permian-Triassic events. PDF file, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 75: 1992-2006.
Website outdated. The link is to a version archived by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

! G.R. Shi and J.B. Waterhouse (2010): Late Palaeozoic global changes affecting high-latitude environments and biotas: an introduction. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 298: 1-16.

! W. Shu et al. (2022): Permian-Middle Triassic floral succession in North China and implications for the great transition of continental ecosystems. Abstract, GSA Bulletin 2022; doi: https://doi.org/10.1130/B36316.1.
"we provide a detailed account of floral evolution from the Permian to Middle Triassic of North China based on new paleobotanical data and a refined biostratigraphy. Five floral transition events are identified
[...] The record begins with a Cisuralian gigantopterid-dominated rainforest community, and then a Lopingian walchian Voltziales conifer-ginkgophyte community that evolved into a voltzialean conifer-pteridosperm forest community.
[...] found in red beds that lack coal deposits due to arid conditions. The disappearance of the voltzialean conifer forest community may represents the end-Permian mass extinction of plants
[...] The first post-crisis plants are an Induan herbaceous lycopsid community, succeeded by the Pleuromeia-Neocalamites shrub marsh community. A pteridosperm shrub woodland community dominated for a short time in the late Early Triassic along with the reappearance of insect herbivory. Finally, in the Middle Triassic, gymnosperm forest communities gradually rose to dominance in both uplands and lowlands ..."

R.M.H. Smith and J. Botha-Brink (2014): Anatomy of a mass extinction: Sedimentological and taphonomic evidence for drought-induced die-offs at the Permo-Triassic boundary in the main Karoo Basin, South Africa. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 396. See also here (abstract).

S.V. Sobolev et al. (2011): Linking mantle plumes, large igneous provinces and environmental catastrophes. In PDF.

Yi Song et al. (2020): Distribution of pyrolytic PAHs across the Triassic-Jurassic boundary in the Sichuan Basin, southwestern China: Evidence of wildfire outside the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province. Abstract, Earth-Science Reviews, 201. See also here (in PDF).
"... Sharp increases in the abundances of pyrolytic PAHs normalized to total organic carbon were found during the Rhaetian Stage (R1 and R2) and at the Tr-J boundary. The ratios of pyrolytic PAHs (PPAHs) to methylated homologues document the combustion origin of PPAHs from methylated PAHs during these intervals of increased wildfire frequency. ..."

! H. Song et al. (2013): Two pulses of extinction during the Permian–Triassic crisis. In PDF, Nature Geoscience, 6.

E.A. Sperling et al. (2022): Breathless through Time: Oxygen and Animals across Earth’s History. Free access, The Biological Bulletin, 243. https://doi.org/10.1086/721754.
Note figure 1: The four broad stages of atmospheric oxygen and life through Earth history, with oxygen in log scale as percent of present atmospheric levels (% PAL).
Figure 5: Reconstructed marine animal biodiversity dynamics and atmospheric oxygen through the Phanerozoic.
Figure 7: The chronology of the worst mass extinction in Earth history.

A.K. Srivastava and D. Agnihotri (2010): Dilemma of late Palaeozoic mixed floras in Gondwana. PDF file, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. See also here (abstract).

! S.M. Stanley (2016): Estimates of the magnitudes of major marine mass extinctions in earth history. In PDF, freely available online through the PNAS open access option. See also here.
"... that the great terminal Permian crisis eliminated only about 81% of marine species, not the frequently quoted 90–96%. Life did not almost disappear at the end of the Permian, as has often been asserted."

S.M. Stanley and X. Yang (1994): A Double Mass Extinction at the End of the Paleozoic Era. Abstract.

! M.B. Steiner et al. (2003): Fungal abundance spike and the Permian-Triassic boundary in the Karoo Supergroup (South Africa). In PDF.

STEINER, Maureen B., ESHET, Yoram, RAMPINO, Michael, and SCHWINDT, Dylan M.: SIMULTANEOUS PERMO-TRIASSIC BOUNDARY MARINE AND TERRESTRIAL MASS EXTINCTIONS: THE GLOBAL FUNGAL SPIKE DISCOVERED IN THE KAROO SUPERGROUP (SOUTH AFRICA). Abstract, GSA Annual Meeting, Boston, November 5-8, 2001.

! Vince Stricherz, UW Today (University of Washington, Seattle, WA): Low oxygen likely made "Great Dying" worse, greatly delayed recovery.
About some results of Peter Ward and Raymond Huey, University of Washington.
"... nearby populations of the same species were cut off from each other because even low-altitude passes had insufficient oxygen to allow animals to cross from one valley to the next. ..."
"... it appears the greatly reduced oxygen actually created impassable barriers that affected the ability of animals to move and survive ..."

! Hans-Dieter Sues and Nicholas C. Fraser (2010): Triassic Life on Land: The Great Transition. Google books.

Roger Summons and Tanja Bosak, MIT OpenCourseWare:
Geobiology. This course introduces the concept of life as a geological agent and examines the interaction between biology and the earth system during the roughly four billion years since life first appeared. Go to:
Lecture Notes. See especially:
Mass extinctions. About the Permian-Triassic mass extinction. (PDF file).
These expired links are still available through the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

Y. Sun et al. (2017): Evidence of widespread wildfires in a coal seam from the middle Permian of the North China Basin. In PDF, Lithosphere. See also here.

Y. Sun et al. (2012): Lethally hot temperatures during the Early Triassic greenhouse. In PDF, Science, 338.
This expired link is now available through the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.
See also here (in PDF) and there (abstract). Also worth to check out:
N. Goudemand et al. (2013): Comment on "Lethally Hot Temperatures During the Early Triassic Greenhouse". Science 339 (6123), 1033.
Y. Sun et al. (2013): Response to Comment on "Lethally Hot Temperatures During the Early Triassic Greenhouse". See also here (in PDF).

H. Svensen et al. (2009): Contact metamorphism, halocarbons, and environmental crises of the past. PDF file, Environ. Chem., 6: 466-471. See also here.

Richard J. Twitchett (2007): Lilliput effect in the aftermath of the end-Permian extinction event. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 252: 132-144.

! D. Uhl et al. (2008): Permian and Triassic wildfires and atmospheric oxygen levels. PDF file, 1st WSEAS International Conference on Environmental and Geological Science and Enginering, Malta.

D. Uhl et al. (2008): Evidences for the Permian-Triassic Wildfire Event. In PDF.

V. Vajda et al. (2020): End-Permian (252 Mya) deforestation, wildfires and flooding—An ancient biotic crisis with lessons for the present. Free access, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 529.

! Vivi Vajda and Stephen McLoughlin (2007): Extinction and recovery patterns of the vegetation across the Cretaceous-Palaeogene boundary - a tool for unravelling the causes of the end-Permian mass-extinction. PDF file, Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 144: 99-112. See fig. 3!
Snapshot provided by the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

! B. van de Schootbrugge and P.B. Wignall (2016): A tale of two extinctions: converging end-Permian and end-Triassic scenarios. Abstract, Geological Magazine, 153.
"There is substantial evidence to suggest that very similar kill mechanisms acted upon late Permian as well as Late Triassic ecosystems, strengthening the hypothesis that the ultimate causes of the mass-extinction events were similar".

Han van Konijnenburg-van Cittert et al.: Vegetation successsion through the end-Permian ecologic crisis. (Powerpoint presentatation). See also here. Abstract, Workshop on Permian - Triassic Paleobotany and Palynology, June 16-18, 2005; Natural Science Museum of South Tyrol, Bolzano, Italy.

C. Virgili (2008): The Permian-Triassic transition: Historical review of the most important ecological crises with special emphasis on the Iberian Peninsula and Western-Central Europe. PDF file, Journal of Iberian Geology, 34: 123-158.

! H. Visscher et al. (2011): Fungal virulence at the time of the end-Permian biosphere crisis? Abstract, Geology, 39: 883-886, or here (in PDF). See also here or there:
Fungi helped destroy forests during mass extinction 250 million years ago. By Robert Sanders, UC Berkely News Center, August 5, 2011.
Forest-killing fungi could multiply in a warming world. By Bob Berwyn, August 8, 2011.

! H.C. Visscher, C.V. Looy, M.E. Collinson, H. Brinkhuis, J.H.A. van Konijnenburg-van Cittert, W.M. Kürschner, & M.A. Sephton, (2004): Environmental Mutagenesis during the End-Permian Ecological Crisis. PDF file, Proceedings National Academy of Sciences USA.

H. Visscher et al. (1996): The terminal Paleozoic fungal event: Evidence of terrestrial ecosystem destabilization and collapse. PDF file, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93: 2155-2158.

C. Wang and H. Visscher (2021): A molecular biomarker for end-Permian plant extinction in South China. Open access, Geology, 49. doi.org/10.1130/G49123.1
See also here.

W.-q. Wang et al. (2023): Ecosystem responses of two Permian biocrises modulated by CO₂ emission rates. Abstract, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 202.
"... we present a long-term uranium isotope (U) record using marine limestones covering the latest Early Permian through Middle to Late Permian. The U values show two episodes of low values in the middle Capitanian and late Changhsingian, indicating two periods of expansion of marine anoxia ..."

Wang Ziqiang and Zhang Zhiping (1998): Gymnosperms on the eve of the terminal Permian mass extinction in North China and their survival strategies. In PDF, Chinese Science Bulletin, 43: 889-897.

P.D. Ward et al. (2011): The terrestrial Permian-Triassic boundary event bed is a nonevent: COMMENT. In PDF.

P.D. Ward (2006): Impact from the Deep. Scientific American.

Peter D. Ward et al. (2005): Abrupt and Gradual Extinction Among Late Permian Land Vertebrates in the Karoo Basin, South Africa. In PDF, Science, 307: 709-714. See also here (abstract).

David Whitehouse, BBC News: Asteroid destroyed life 250m years ago. Researchers believe that particular fullerenes are extraterrestrial because the gases trapped inside have an unusual ratio of isotopes that indicate they were made in the atmosphere of a star that exploded before our Sun was born.

P.B. Wignall and D.P.G. Bond (2023): The great catastrophe: causes of the Permo-Triassic marine mass extinction. Free access, National Science Review, nwad273, https://doi.org/10.1093/nsr/nwad273.
Note figure 1: Summary of geochemical, environmental and faunal events across the Permo-Triassic boundary.
! Figure 2: Lopingian and Early Triassic palaeogeographic maps showing the occurrences of common marine groups (ammonoids, bivalves, brachiopods, conodonts, corals (rugose and tabulate), foraminifers, ostracods).

P.B. Wignall et al. (2020): Death in the shallows: The record of Permo-Triassic mass extinction in paralic settings, southwest China. Open access, Global and Planetary Change, 189.

P.B. Wignall and B. van de Schootbrugge (2016): Middle Phanerozoic mass extinctions and a tribute to the work of Professor Tony Hallam. In PDF, Geological Magazine. See also here (abstract).

! P.B. Wignall (2001): Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions. In PDF, Earth-Science Reviews, 53: 1-33.
See also here.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
! Permian-Triassic extinction event.
! Siberian Traps.
Mantle Plume.
Extinction event.
Category:Extinction events.
Fern spike.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia:
Category:Triassic
Category:Triassic events
Category:Triassic life
Category:Triassic first appearances
Category:Triassic animals
! Category:Triassic plants
Excellent!

! A.M.E. Winguth (2016): Changes in productivity and oxygenation during the Permian-Triassic transition. Geology, 44: 783–784.

WordIQ.com: Definition of Fullerene.

Laura Wright, Geotimes: P/T extinction explained.

! Q. Wu et al. (2024): The terrestrial end-Permian mass extinction in the paleotropics postdates the marine extinction. Free access, Science Advances, 10.
Note figure 1: Location of study area.
Figure 2: Correlations of the EPME [end-Permian mass extinction] between terrestrial and transitional coastal sections in Southwest China.
! Figure 5: Global correlation of the EPME.
Figure 6: Schematic illustration of the terrestrial EPME process.
"...We present high-precision zircon U-Pb geochronology by the chemical abrasion–isotope dilution–thermal ionization mass spectrometry technique on tuffs from terrestrial to transitional coastal settings
[...] our results suggest that the terrestrial extinction occurred diachronously with latitude, beginning at high latitudes during the late Changhsingian and progressing to the tropics by the early Induan, spanning a duration of nearly 1 million years ..."

! Q. Wu et al. (2021): High-precision U-Pb age constraints on the Permian floral turnovers, paleoclimate change, and tectonics of the North China block. Free access, Geology. See also here.
"... The great loss of highly diverse and abundant Cathaysian floras and the widespread invasion of the Angaran floras under arid climate conditions in the North China block happened during the late Cisuralian to Guadalupian, but its exact timing is uncertain due to the long hiatus. ..."

Y. Wu et al. (2023): Earth, Environmental, Ecological, and Space Sciences Volcanic CO₂ degassing postdates thermogenic carbon emission during the end-Permian mass extinction. Open access, Sci. Adv., 9: eabq4082.

Shucheng Xie et al. (2011): Cyanobacterial blooms tied to volcanism during the 5 m.y. Permo-Triassic biotic crisis: Reply. In PDF, Geology. See especially:
Shucheng Xie et al. (2010): Cyanobacterial blooms tied to volcanism during the 5 m.y. Permo-Triassic biotic crisis.

C. Xiong et al. (2021): Plant resilience and extinctions through the Permian to Middle Triassic on the North China Block: A multilevel diversity analysis of macrofossil records. In PDF, Earth-Science Reviews, 223.
See also here.
"... After this, coal swamps disappeared, most widespread genera became extinct or shrank in distribution area, red beds became common, and surviving plants were walchian conifers, peltasperms and other advanced gymnosperms, indicating an overall drying trend in climate. A further extinction event happened at the transition between the Sunjiagou and Liujiagou formations (and lateral equivalents), with the highest species extinction and origination rates at regional scale. ..."

Conghui Xiong and Qi Wang (2011): Permian-Triassic land-plant diversity in South China: Was there a mass extinction at the Permian/Triassic boundary? PDF file, Paleobiology, 37: 157-167.

! Z. Xu et al. (2022): End Permian to Middle Triassic plant species richness and abundance patterns in South China: Coevolution of plants and the environment through the Permian–Triassic transition. In PDF, Earth-Science Reviews.
See also here.
"... Plant abundance recovery began earlier than the resumption of coal formation which only initiated in the Anisian following its disappearance during the EPPC. Only in the Late Triassic did the flora recover to a level comparable to that seen in the Permian. ..."

H.F. Yin and H.J. Song (2013): Mass extinction and Pangea integration during the Paleozoic– Mesozoic transition. Sci. China Ser., D, 56: 1791–1803. See also here (in PDF).

! H. Yin et al. (2007): The protracted Permo-Triassic crisis and multi-episode extinction around the Permian-Triassic boundary. In PDF, Global and Planetary Change.
Now recovered from the Internet Archive´s Wayback Machine.

J. Yu et al. (2015), starting on PDF page 48: Vegetation changeover across the Permian-Triassic boundary in Southwest China. Extinction, survival, recovery and palaeoclimate: a critical review. In PDF, abstract, Agora Paleobotanica, A tribute to Bernard Renault, Autun.

! J. Yu et al. (2015): Vegetation changeover across the Permian-Triassic Boundary in Southwest China: Extinction, survival, recovery and palaeoclimate: A critical review. Abstract, Earth-Science Reviews. See also here (summary by David De Vleeschouwer).

! P. Zhang et al. (2023): Significant floral changes across the Permian-Triassic and Triassic-Jurassic transitions induced by widespread wildfires. Open access, Front. Ecol. Evol., 11: 1284482. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2023.1284482.
Note figure 2: Global paleogeography during Permian-Triassic (A) and Triassic-Jurassic (B) transitions, including the location of the Large Igneous Province and wildfires around the world.
Figure 3: Extinction mechanisms. (A, B), Summary of the volcanically triggered extinction mechanisms inferred from the geochemical, sedimentary, and paleontological record of the Permian-Triassic and Triassic-Jurassic mass extinctions and their recorded effects on biota in the ocean/lake.

H. Zhang et al. (2021): Felsic volcanism as a factor driving the end-Permian mass extinction. Open access, Science Advances,7. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abh1390

H. Zhang et al. (2015): The terrestrial end-Permian mass extinction in South China. In PDF, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology.

! S.-h. Zhang et al. (2022): Two cosmopolitanism events driven by different extreme paleoclimate regimes. Abstract, Global and Planetary Change.

M.A. Zharkov and N.M. Chumakov, Geological Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia: Paleogeography and Sedimentation Settings during Permian-Triassic Reorganizations in Biosphere (PDF file). Stratigraphy and Geological Correlation, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2001, pp. 340-363. Translated from Stratigrafiya. Geologicheskaya Korrelyatsiya, Vol. 9, No. 4, 2001, pp. 29-54.

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